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Basics

• R is case sensitive, object-oriented.
• A command ends with a semi-colon (;). The last semi-colon can be omitted.
• A comment begins with # regardless of its location. The single quotes ('') and double quotes ("") are used interchangably.
• Packages contains data sets and functions, are accessed through library().
• Objects include vectors, lists, data frames, matrices (array), and factors.
• An R list is an object consisting of an ordered collection of objects known as its components. lists are a general form of vector in which the various elements need not be of the same type, and are often themselves vectors or lists.
• Data frames are matrix-like structures, in which the columns can be of different types. A data frame is a list with class "data.frame".
• A factor is a vector object used to specify a discrete classification (grouping) of the components of other vectors of the same length.
• Matrices or more generally arrays are multi-dimensional generalizations of vectors. An array can be considered as a multiply subscripted collection of data entries
• The "pi" is the constant 3.141592654. The "NA" indicates a missing value (default).
• The "pkg" (package); "d" (data frame); "m" (matrix); "v" (vector), url, file (file), obj (objects), fit (fitted model), n (number); s (string).

Basic Commands

• quit(); q()
• help(command); help.start()
• search(); help.search()
• dir(); methods()
• library(p); identify(); attach(); detatch()
• remove(); rm()
• start:end; c(); rep(); seq()
• scan(); print(); str(); ls()
• cat(); cat("concaternate", c, "and print", "\t")
• options(prompt='.', continue="///", digits=10); getOption("width")
• source(); source.url() /* run commands in a file */

Simple examples

Operators

• <- (left assignment), -> (right assignment)
• +, -, *, /, ^, %% (modulus)
• >, >=, <, <=, == (equal), != (not equal)
• & (and), | (or)
• %*% (matrix product); %/% (division)
• %o% (Outer product); %x% (Kronecker product)
• %in% (Matching operator);

Functions

• abs(); sin(); cos(); tan(); exp(); sqrt(); min(); max()
• log(); log(v,10); log10(); log2(); log(v, base=10)
• mean(); sum(); median(); range(); var(); sd()
• rank(); ave(v, group); by(group)
• c(a, b, c); c(start:end); seq(start:end); seq(10, 100, by=5)
• rep(n, time); rep(7, 3); rep(start:end, time)
• rep(1:3, c(2,2,2)); rep(1:3, each=2); rep(1:3, c(1:3))
• seq(1,4); seq(1,10, by=2); seq(0,1, length=10)
• length(), sort(), order(); rev(v) ## to reverse
• dnorm(1.96); dt(1.96, 100); df(1.96, 1, 100); dchisq(1.96, 10)
• pnorm(1.96); pt(1.96, 100); pf(1.96, 1, 100); pchisq(1.96, 10)
• rpois(n, lamda); rnorm(n); rt(n, df); rt(n, df=c(1:10)); rexp(n)
• substring(s, start, stop); substr(s, start, stop); nchar(s)
• date()
• mode() ## type of object

Reading Text Files

• source(f); /* to execute commands in the file */
• read.table(f); read.table.url(url)
• download.file(url); url.show(url)
• m<-read.table("f:/temp/cigar.txt", header=TRUE)
• m<-read.table('f:/temp/cigar.txt')
• names(m)<-c("a", "b", "c")
• read.csv(f, header=TRUE, sep=",", quote="\"", dec=".")
• read.csv2(f, header=TRUE, sep=";", quote="\"", dec=",")
• read.delim(f, header=TRUE, sep="\t", quote="\"", dec=".")
• read.delim2(f, header=TRUE, sep="\t", quote="\"", dec=",")
• m<-read.csv("nes2.csv, header=TRUE)
• read.fwf(file, widths=c(3,5,3), header="FALSE, sep="", as.is=FALSE)
• as.is=TRUE; as.is=T # not to be converted into a factor
• na.strings<-c(".", "NA", "", "#") # characters for missing
• cnt=count.fields(df); which(cnt=7);

Reading Data Frames

• load(d);
• data(d); data(d, package="p")
• data.frame(v1, v2) /* to make a data frame out of vectors */
• m3<-data.frame(as.matrix(m[,2:4]))
• m2<-edit(m); m2<-edit(data.frame(m))
• data.entry(df)

Handling Data

• m2<-match(v1, v2, nomatch=0) # data merging
• m2<-match(m[,1], m[,3])

Writing Data

• cat(); print()
• cat("y x1 x2", "2 4 2", "5 2 7", file="sample.txt", sep="\n")
• write.(obj, f)
• write.table(df, file='firms.csv', sep=",", row.names=NA, col.names=NA)
• save(f, obj); save.image(f)
• sink(); format()

Defining Matrices

• m<-c(1, 2, 3, 4); c(1, 2, 3, 4)->m; assign("m", c(1, 2, 3, 4))
• m<-data.frame(column1=c(1,2,3), column2=c(4,5,6)); ## 2 by 3
• rep(c(1,2,3), 2); rep(c(1,2,3), each=2);
• rep(c(1,2,3), c(2,2,2,)); m<-c(c1=15, c2=54, c3=50)
• seq(1,4); seq(1,10, by=2); seq(0,1, length=10);
• intm<-1:4; intm<-numeric(); intm[1]m<-1; intm[2]m>-2
• strm<c("a", "b", "c"); strm<-charanter(); strm[1]m<-"a"; strm[2]m<-"b"
• blm<-c(T,F); blm<-v1>10; ## a boolean vector of TRUE and FALSE
• m<-scan()
• mm<-matrix(1:12,4); mm<-matrix(1:12, nrow=4)
• mm<-matrix(1:12, ncol=3); mm<-matrix(1:12, nrow=4)
• mm<-matrix(1:12, nrow=4, ncol=3); mm<-matrix(1:12, 4, 3)
• arrm<-array(1:10); arrm<-array(1:10, dim=c(2,5))
• cbind(); rbind(); gl(); expand.grid()
• list()

Referring Matrices

• m[,2]; v=m[2,]; m[-1, -3] ## to extract elements
• m[c(1, 5, 6)]; m2=m[-c(1, 5, 6)] ## to extract elements
• m<-c(c1=15, c2=54, c3=50); m<-c("c1", "c3")
• m2<-m$c2; m2<-m[,2]; m2<-m[,"c2"]; m2<-m[[2]]
• m[,3:5]; m3<-m[,c(3, 4, 5)]; m3<-m[,c("c3", "c4", "c5")]
• m<-c(4, 2, 4); names(m)<-c("Grape", "Pear", "Apple")
• m1$v2 /*variable 2 of the data frame 1*/
• white(); which.max(); which(min)
• attr(m, which); attributes(obj)

Matrix Functions

• t(); det(); rank(); eigen(); diag(); prod(); crossprod()
• sum(); mean(); var(); sd(); min(); max(); prod(); cumsum(); cumprod()
• is.na(m) ## to check if m contains a missing value
• rowsum(); colsum(); nrow(); ccol()
• dim(m); dimnames(m)
• merge(df1, df2)
• as.factor(); as.matrix(), as.vector(); /* conversion*/
• is.factor(); is.matrix(), is.vector();
• class(); unclass()
• na.omit(); na.fail(); unique(); table(); sample()
• as.array(); as.data.frame()
• as.numeric(); as.characters(); as.logical(); as.complex()

Ordinary Least Squares (OLS)

• lm(); glm()
• m.ols<-lm(v1~v2+v3, data=m) ## linear model
• lm(v1~v2+v3, data=m); summary(lm(v1~v2+v3, data=m)); summary(m.ols)
• names(m.ols); coef(m.ols); fitted(m.ols); resid(m.ols)
• predict(fit); AIC(fit); logLik(fit); deviance(fit)
• model.matrix(v1~v2+v3, data=m)
• m.ols2<-model.matrix(v1~v2+v3, data=m); summary(m.ols2)

Binary Response Regressions

• m.logit<-glm(v1~v2+v3,family=binomial(link=logit),data=m)
• summary(m.logit); coef(m.logit); fitted(m.logit); resid(m.logit)
• lsfit(v1,v2)
• nls(); m.nonlin<-lm(v1~v2+v2^2, data=m)
• anova(m.ols, m.nonlin)
• m.qr<-qr(m) ## QR Decomposition of a Matrix

Descriptives

• summary(m); fivenum(m)
• stem(v); boxplot(v); boxplot(v1, v2); hist(v)
• qqnorm(v); qqline(v)
• rug(); lines()
• table() /*to make a table*/
• tabulate()

Multivariate Analysis

• cor(m); cor(sqrt(m)) ## Pearson correlation
• cor.test(v1, v2)
• prcomp() /* Principal components in the mva package*/
• kmeans() /* Kmeans cluster analysis in the mva package*/
• factanal() /* Factor analysis in the mva package*/
• cancor() /* Canonical correlation in the mva package*/

Categorical Data Analysis

• chisq.test(v1,v2) ## Pearson Chi-squared Test
• fisher.test(v1,v2) ## Fisher Exact Test
• friedman.test(v1,v2) ## Friedman Test
• prop.test(); binom.test() ## sign test
• kruskal.test(v1,v2) ## Kruskal-Wallis Rank Sum Test
• wilcox.test(v1,v2) ## Wilcoxon Rank Sum (Mann-Whitney) Test
• ks.test(v1,v2) ## Two Sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test
• bartlett.test(v1,v2) ## Bartlett Test for Homogeneity of Variances

• t.test(v1,v2); t.test(v1,v2, var.equal=FALSE)
• t.test(v1,v2, mu=0 paired=FALSE)
• t.test(v1.v2, mu=10, paired=F, var.equal=T)
• power.t.test(v1,v2); pairwise.t.test()
• var.test(v1,v2) ## F test for equal variance

• m.anova<-aov(v1~v2+v3, data=m)
• aov(); anova()
• summary(m.anova)
• power.anova.test() ## Power calculations for balanced one-way ANOVA tests

Modules

Flow Control

Programming Functions

• expression(); parse(); deparse(); eval()
• optim() /* general-purpose optimization */
• nlm() /* Newton algorithm */
• lm() /* linear models */
• nls() /* nonlinear least squares model */

Plotting

• plot(y~x, data=m, pch=16) # plotting character (pch)
• pairs(m) # scatterplot matrix
• xyrange<-range(m) # to get range of m
• plot(y~x, data=m, xlim=xyrange, ylim=xyrange)
• abline(0,1)
• plot((0:10), sin((1:10)*pi, type="1") # 1 joins the points
• barplot(); boxplot(); stem(); hist();
• matplot() /* matrix plot */
• pairs(m) /* scatterplots */
• coplot() /* conditional plot */
• stripplot() /* strip plot */
• qqplot(); qqnorm(); qqline() /* quantile0quantile plot */

Options

• points() # to add points to a plot
• lines() # to add lines
• text() # to add texts
• mtext() # to add margin texts
• axis() # to control axis
• par(cex=1.25 mex=1.25)
• par(mfrow=c(2,2), mfcol=c(1,1))